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he was born to be king

  • 1 born

    III see bear I
    born adj nato
    where were you born? ¿dónde naciste?
    tr[bɔːn]
    1 nato,-a
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to be born nacer
    born and bred de pura cepa
    not to be born yesterday figurative use no tener ni un pelo de tonto
    to be born to be something nacer para ser algo
    to be born again volver a nacer
    he's English-born es inglés de nacimiento
    the first-born el/la primogénito,-a
    born ['bɔrn] adj
    1) : nacido
    2) : nato
    she's a born singer: es una cantante nata
    he's a born leader: nació para mandar
    adj.
    • nacido, -a adj.
    • nato, -a adj.

    I bɔːrn, bɔːn
    (past p of bear I)

    to be born — nacer*

    when was she born? — ¿cuándo nació?

    to be born lucky — nacer* con suerte

    poets are born not made — los poetas nacen, no se hacen

    to be born to something/to + inf: he was born to (a life of) luxury nació para (ser) rico; this is what I was born for o what I was born to do yo he nacido para esto; I wasn't born yesterday, you know! oye, que no nací ayer!; there's one born every minute! — (set phrase) hay tontos para repartir


    II
    adjective (before n) <teacher/leader> nato

    in all my born days — (colloq) en toda mi vida

    [bɔːn]
    1.
    VB (pp)
    of bear II, 1., 1); nacido

    to be born — (lit) nacer; (fig) [idea] surgir, nacer

    to be born again — renacer, volver a nacer

    he wasn't born yesterday! * — ¡no se chupa el dedo! *

    2.
    ADJ [actor, leader] nato
    * * *

    I [bɔːrn, bɔːn]
    (past p of bear I)

    to be born — nacer*

    when was she born? — ¿cuándo nació?

    to be born lucky — nacer* con suerte

    poets are born not made — los poetas nacen, no se hacen

    to be born to something/to + inf: he was born to (a life of) luxury nació para (ser) rico; this is what I was born for o what I was born to do yo he nacido para esto; I wasn't born yesterday, you know! oye, que no nací ayer!; there's one born every minute! — (set phrase) hay tontos para repartir


    II
    adjective (before n) <teacher/leader> nato

    in all my born days — (colloq) en toda mi vida

    English-spanish dictionary > born

  • 2 to be born to be something

    nacer para ser algo

    English-spanish dictionary > to be born to be something

  • 3 Afonso V, King

    (r. 1446-1481)
       Born in 1432, the son of King D. Duarte I and D. Leonor of Aragon, Afonso was only six years old when his father died suddenly and a succession crisis and consequent civil strife began. His mother fled into exile in Castile, where she died in 1445. He attained his majority in 1446. In the 1450s, King Afonso presided over more Portuguese expansion in Morocco by the capture of more Moroccan cities, but progress down the western African coast was delayed by the king's intervention in Iberian royal politics in Castile. His ambitions in Spain were thwarted after his loss of the battle of Toro to Castilian forces in 1476. In the 1470s, the king encouraged Portuguese exploration, trade, and colonization in western Africa, including settlement in the islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Bight of Biafra. The king died in 1481, and as a member of the Aviz dynasty, he became known in the history of Portugal as "O Africano" ("the African") and had one of the longest reigns in Portuguese history.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Afonso V, King

  • 4 Carlos I, King

    (1863-1908)
       The second to last reigning king of Portugal and second to last of the Braganza dynasty to rule. Born in 1863, the son of King Luis I, Carlos was well-educated and became an accomplished sailor, as well as an artist of maritime scenes in oil paintings. A selection of his paintings remains on display in various museums and halls. His reign began in 1889, when his father died, and was immediately marked by controversy and conflict. In January 1890, the monarchy was weakened and Carlos's authority placed in question in the crisis of the " English Ultimatum" (see also Ultimatum, English) Portugal's oldest ally, Great Britain, threatened an end to the 517-year-old alliance, and hostilities arose over the question of territorial expansion in the "Scramble for Africa." Although Carlos was a talented diplomat who managed to repair the damaged Anglo-Portuguese Alliance and to promote other foreign policy initiatives, his reign was marked by the failure of monarchist politics, the weakening monarchy, and rising republicanism. As monarchist politics became more unstable and corrupt, the republic opposition grew stronger and more violent. Carlos's appointment of the dictatorial João Franco government in 1907 and Franco's measures of January 1908 repressing the opposition were, in effect, the king's death warrant. While returning from a royal trip to the Alentejo on 1 February, 1908, King Carlos and his heir apparent, Prince Luís, were shot in their open carriage in Lisbon by carbonaria (anarchist republicans). Although their two murderers were killed by guards on the spot, the official investigation of their murders was never completed.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Carlos I, King

  • 5 Pedro IV, king

    (also Emperor Pedro I of Brazil)
    (1798-1834)
       The first emperor of Brazil and restorer of the liberal, constitutional monarchy, as well as of the throne of his daughter, Queen Maria II. Born in Queluz Palace, the second son of the regent João VI and Queen Carlota Joaquina, Pedro at age nine accompanied his parents and the remainder of the Braganza royal family to Brazil, fleeing the French invasion of Portugal in late 1807. Raised and educated in Brazil, following the return of his father to Portugal, Pedro declared the independence of Brazil from Portugal in the famous "cry of Ipiranga," on 7 September 1822. As Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, he ruled that fledgling nation-state-empire from 1822 to 1831, when he abdicated in favor of his son Pedro, and then went to Portugal and the Azores.
       Pedro's absolutist brother, Dom Miguel, following the death of their father João VI in 1826, had broken his word on defending Portugal's constitution and had carried out an absolutist counterrevolution, which was supported by his reactionary mother Carlota Joaquina. Pedro's daughter, Queen Maria II, who was too young to assume the duties of monarch of Portugal, had lost her throne to King Miguel, in effect, and Pedro spent the remainder of his life restoring the constitutional monarchy and his young daughter to the throne of Portugal. In the 1832-34 War of the Brothers, Pedro IV's armed forces triumphed over those of Dom Miguel and the latter fled to exile in Austria. Exhausted from the effort, Pedro died on 24 September 1834, and was buried in Lisbon. In 1972, his remains were moved to Ipiranga, Brazil.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Pedro IV, king

  • 6 Manuel II, king

    (1890-1932)
       The last reigning king of Portugal, and the last of the Braganza dynasty to rule. Born in 1890, the son of King Carlos I and Queen Amélia, young Manuel witnessed the murder of his father and his elder brother, the heir apparent, Dom Luís, by anarchists in the streets of Lisbon, on 1 February 1908. In the same carriage as his mortally wounded father and brother, and himself wounded, Manuel survived to ascend the throne. His brief reign was troubled by political instability, factionalism, and rising republicanism. As the republican revolution succeeded, Manuel and his family, including the Queen Mother Amélia, fled from the bombarded Necessidades Palace in Lisbon to the Mafra Palace. Rather than abdicate or remain as a prisoner of the republic, Manuel fled by ship to exile in Great Britain, where he remained for the rest of his life. Occupying himself with his hobby of collecting rare Portuguese books, Manuel died prematurely at age 42, in 1932, at his estate south of London.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Manuel II, king

  • 7 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 8 Vauban, Sébastien de

    SUBJECT AREA: Canals, Civil engineering
    [br]
    b. 15 May 1633 St-Léger-de-Fougeret, Château Chinon, Nièvre, France
    d. 20 March 1707 Paris, France
    [br]
    French civil and military engineer.
    [br]
    Born of impecunious parents, Vauban joined Condé's regiment as a cadet in 1651, at the age of 17, although he had apparently acquired some knowledge of mathematics and fortifications in the Carmelite College of Semur-en-Auxois. In the war of the Fronde he was captured by the Royal troops in 1653 and was converted to the king's service. He was soon recognized as having engineering ability and was given the task of repairing the fortifications of Sainte-Menehould. During the next few years he was engaged on fortification repairs and assisting at sieges, including Ypres, Gravelines and Oudenarde in 1658. Vauban found favour with the king, Louis XIV, and was responsible for the fortifications of Lille, which had been captured in 1667; he commenced the defensive structures of the citadel and the town in 1668. These were completed in 1674 and consisted of a vast pentagonal fort with bastions and further detached works surrounded by water defences. In 1692 he was present at the siege of Namur and was responsible for its capture. He was then put in charge of re-establishing and improving the defences. He next developed a line of fortresses along the French border. He later was abandoned by the king, whom he had served so well, and, with his advice being ignored by the French forces, they suffered defeat after defeat in Marlborough's wars.
    Meanwhile he had been called in to inspect the recently completed Canal du Midi and subsequently made recommendations for its improvement. These included the extension of the Montagne Noire feeder, and the construction of the Cesse and Orbiel aqueducts which were carried out to his design and under his supervision in 1686–7. In 1700 he was consulted on and produced a plan for a canal across France from north to south, providing a barge waterway from Nîmes to Dunkirk, but this was not carried out.
    In 1703 he was created maréchal de France, and two years later he devised vast schemes for the development of the canal system in Flanders. Owing to determined opposition from the local people, these schemes were abandoned and not revived until 1770, by which time the locals were prepared to accept them.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Sir Reginald Blomfield, 1938, Sébastien lePrestre de Vauban, 1633–1707, Methuen. D.Halevy, 1924, Vauban. Builder of Fortresses, trans. C.J.C.Street, Geoffrey Bles.
    JHB

    Biographical history of technology > Vauban, Sébastien de

  • 9 star

    1. noun
    1) Stern, der

    three/four star hotel — Drei-/Vier-Sterne-Hotel, das

    two/four star [petrol] — Normal-/Super[benzin], das

    the Stars and Stripes — (Amer.) das Sternenbanner

    2) (prominent person) Star, der
    3) (asterisk) Stern, der; Sternchen, das
    4) (Astrol.) Stern, der

    read one's/the stars — sein/das Horoskop lesen

    2. attributive adjective

    star pupil — bester Schüler/beste Schülerin

    star turn or attraction — Hauptattraktion, die

    3. transitive verb,
    - rr- (feature as star)

    starring Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall — mit Humphrey Bogart und Lauren Bacall in den Hauptrollen

    4. intransitive verb,
    - rr-

    star in a film/play/TV series — in einem Film/einem Stück/einer Fernsehserie die Hauptrolle spielen

    •• Cultural note:
    Die amerikanische Nationalflagge. Die 13 abwechselnd roten und weißen Streifen stehen für die Gründungsstaaten und die 50 weißen Sterne für die heutigen Bundesstaaten.
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (the fixed bodies in the sky, which are really distant suns: The Sun is a star, and the Earth is one of its planets.) der Stern
    2) (any of the bodies in the sky appearing as points of light: The sky was full of stars.) der Stern
    3) (an object, shape or figure with a number of pointed rays, usually five or six, often used as a means of marking quality etc: The teacher stuck a gold star on the child's neat exercise book; a four-star hotel.) der Stern
    4) (a leading actor or actress or other well-known performer eg in sport etc: a film/television star; a football star; ( also adjective) She has had many star rôles in films.) der Star, Star-...
    2. verb
    1) (to play a leading role in a play, film etc: She has starred in two recent films.) als Hauptdarsteller auftreten
    2) ((of a film etc) to have (a certain actor etc) as its leading performer: The film starred Elvis Presley.) in einer Hauptrolle zeigen
    •
    - academic.ru/70330/stardom">stardom
    - starry
    - starfish
    - starlight
    - starlit
    - star turn
    - see stars
    - thank one's lucky stars
    * * *
    [stɑ:ʳ, AM stɑ:r]
    I. n
    1. ASTRON Stern m
    shooting \star Sternschnuppe f
    2. (symbol) Stern m
    four-\star hotel Viersternehotel nt
    3. (asterisk) Sternchen nt
    to mark sth with a \star etw mit einem Sternchen versehen
    4. (mark on animal) Stirnfleck eines Tieres
    5. (performer) Star m
    film/rock \star Film-/Rockstar m
    a \star of stage and screen ein berühmter Bühnen- und Filmschauspieler
    a rising \star jemand, der auf dem besten Wege ist, ein Star zu werden
    ▪ the \stars pl die Sterne, Horoskop nt
    7.
    ▶ to be born under a lucky/an unlucky \star ( fam) unter einem/keinem glücklichen Stern geboren sein
    ▶ sb's \star has waned jd hat an Popularität verloren
    II. vt
    <- rr->
    1. THEAT, FILM
    the new production of ‘King Lear’ will \star John Smith as [or in the role of] Lear die neue Produktion von ‚King Lear‘ zeigt John Smith in der Rolle des Lear
    ▪ to \star sth etw mit einem Sternchen versehen
    III. vi
    <- rr->
    1. THEAT, FILM
    to \star in a film/play in einem Film/Theaterstück die Hauptrolle spielen
    2. (be brilliant) brillieren
    IV. adj attr, inv Star-
    Natalie is the \star student in this year's ballet class Natalie ist die hervorragendste Schülerin der diesjährigen Ballettklasse
    \star witness Hauptzeuge, -zeugin m, f
    * * *
    [stAː(r)]
    1. n
    1) Stern m; (= asterisk, SCH) Sternchen nt

    the Stars and Stripes —

    you can thank your lucky stars that... — Sie können von Glück sagen, dass...

    it's ( all) in the stars — es steht (alles) in den Sternen

    a three-star general ( US Mil ) —, Mil ) ein Dreisternegeneral m

    2) (= person) Star m
    2. adj attr
    Haupt-

    star performer/player — Star m

    3. vt
    1) (= mark with stars) mit einem Stern/mit Sternen versehen; (fig, = scatter) übersäen

    starring... — in der Hauptrolle/den Hauptrollen...

    die Hauptrolle spielen or haben
    * * *
    star [stɑː(r)]
    A s
    1. ASTRON
    a) Stern m
    b) Fixstern m
    c) Gestirn n
    2. Stern m:
    a) sternähnliche Figur
    b) fig Größe f, Berühmtheit f (Person)
    c) Orden m
    d) TYPO Sternchen n (Hinweiszeichen)
    e) weißer Stirnfleck (besonders eines Pferdes):
    Stars and Stripes pl (als sg konstruiert) Sternenbanner n (Nationalflagge der USA);
    Star of David [ˈdeıvıd] David(s)stern;
    a literary star fig ein Stern am literarischen Himmel;
    see stars umg Sterne sehen (nach einem Schlag);
    five-star general Fünfsternegeneral m;
    three-star restaurant Dreisternerestaurant n;
    the guidebook awarded the restaurant two stars der Führer verlieh dem Restaurant zwei Sterne
    3. a) Stern m (Schicksal)
    b) auch lucky star Glücksstern m, guter Stern:
    unlucky star Unstern m;
    he was born under a lucky star er wurde unter einem guten oder glücklichen Stern geboren;
    follow one’s star seinem (Glücks)Stern vertrauen;
    you may thank ( oder bless) your (lucky) stars that … Sie können von Glück sagen, dass …; → ascendant A 1, set D 1
    4. (Bühnen-, besonders Film)Star m
    5. SPORT etc Star m:
    6. ELEK Stern m
    7. Segeln: Star m (Boot)
    B adj
    1. Stern…:
    star map ( oder chart) ( time, etc)
    2. Haupt…:
    star prosecution witness JUR Hauptbelastungszeuge m
    3. THEAT, auch SPORT etc Star…:
    star player Star m;
    star performance Elitevorstellung f;
    star turn Hauptattraktion f
    4. hervorragend, Star…:
    C v/t
    1. mit Sternen schmücken oder besäen
    2. jemanden in der oder einer Hauptrolle zeigen:
    a film starring … ein Film mit … in der Hauptrolle
    3. TYPO mit Sternchen versehen
    D v/i die oder eine Hauptrolle spielen (in in dat):
    star as fig Hervorragendes leisten als, glänzen als
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) Stern, der

    three/four star hotel — Drei-/Vier-Sterne-Hotel, das

    two/four star [petrol] — Normal-/Super[benzin], das

    the Stars and Stripes — (Amer.) das Sternenbanner

    2) (prominent person) Star, der
    3) (asterisk) Stern, der; Sternchen, das
    4) (Astrol.) Stern, der

    read one's/the stars — sein/das Horoskop lesen

    2. attributive adjective

    star pupil — bester Schüler/beste Schülerin

    star turn or attraction — Hauptattraktion, die

    3. transitive verb,
    - rr- (feature as star)
    4. intransitive verb,
    - rr-

    star in a film/play/TV series — in einem Film/einem Stück/einer Fernsehserie die Hauptrolle spielen

    •• Cultural note:
    Die amerikanische Nationalflagge. Die 13 abwechselnd roten und weißen Streifen stehen für die Gründungsstaaten und die 50 weißen Sterne für die heutigen Bundesstaaten.
    * * *
    n.
    Star -e (Film-) m.
    Stern -e m.

    English-german dictionary > star

  • 10 where

    1. adverb
    1) (in or at what place) wo

    where shall we sit? — wo wollen wir sitzen od. uns hinsetzen?; wohin wollen wir uns setzen?

    where was I? — (fig.) wo war ich stehengeblieben?

    where did Orwell say/write that? — wo od. an welcher Stelle sagt/schreibt Orwell das?

    where is the harm in it/the sense of it? — was macht das schon/welchen od. was für einen Sinn hat das?

    2) (from what place) woher
    3) (to what place, to which) wohin

    where shall I put it? — wohin soll ich es legen?; wo soll ich es hinlegen?

    where do we go from here? — (fig.) was tun wir jetzt od. als nächstes?

    4) (in what respect) inwiefern

    I don't know where they differ/I've gone wrong — ich weiß nicht, worin sie sich unterscheiden/wo ich den Fehler gemacht habe

    that is where you are wrong — in diesem Punkt irrst du dich

    in the box where I keep my tools — in der Kiste, worin od. in der ich mein Werkzeug habe

    where will/would they be if...? — was wird/würde aus ihnen, wenn...?

    2. conjunction
    wo

    where uncertain, leave blank — bei Unsicherheit [bitte] freilassen

    3. pronoun

    near/not far from where it happened — nahe der Stelle/nicht weit von der od. unweit der Stelle, wo es passiert ist

    from where I'm standing — von meinem Standort [aus]

    they continued from where they left off — sie machten da weiter, wo sie aufgehört hatten

    where [...] from? — woher [...]?; von wo [...]?

    where [...] to? — wohin [...]?

    where are you going to? — wohin gehst du?; wo gehst du hin?

    * * *
    [(h)weəʳ, AM (h)wer]
    adv inv
    1. interrog (what place, position) wo
    \where does he live? wo wohnt er?
    \where are you going? wohin gehst du?
    \where did you put my umbrella? wo hast du meinen Schirm hingelegt?
    \where are we going? wohin gehen wir?
    \where's the party being held? wo ist denn die Party?
    could you tell me \where Barker Drive is please? können Sie mir bitte sagen, wo Barker Drive ist?
    I wonder \where they will take us to ich frage mich, wohin sie uns bringen
    \where does this argument lead? zu was führt dieser Streit?
    he was so obnoxious so I told him \where to go er war so eklig zu mir, dass ich ihm gesagt habe, dass er sich verziehen soll fam
    2. rel (at that place which) wo
    Bradford, \where Bren comes from... Bradford, wo Bren herkommt...
    you see \where Mira is standing? siehst du, wo Mira steht?
    this is \where I live hier wohne ich
    he was free to go \where he liked er konnte gehen, wohin er wollte
    that's \where you're wrong genau da liegst du falsch
    he's as soft as butter \where children are concerned er ist weich wie Butter, was Kinder anbelangt
    3. rel (at what stage)
    you reach a point in any project \where you just want to get the thing finished bei jedem Projekt erreicht man irgendwann mal den Punkt, an dem man einfach fertig werden möchte
    I've reached the stage \where I just don't care anymore ich habe einen Punkt erreicht, an dem es mir einfach egal ist
    4. interrog (in what situation) wo
    \where do you see yourself five years from now? wo sehen Sie sich in fünf Jahren?
    you're not available on the 12th and Andrew can't make the 20th — so \where does that leave us? du kannst am 12. nicht und Andrew am 20. nicht — was machen wir also?
    5.
    ▶ to be \where it's at ( dated) das Maß aller Dinge sein
    ▶ to know/see \where sb's coming from wissen/verstehen, was jd meint
    * * *
    [wɛə(r)]
    1. adv
    wo

    where (to) — wohin, wo... hin

    where... from — woher, wo... her

    where are you going (to)? — wohin gehst du?, wo gehst du hin?

    where to, sir? — wohin (wollen Sie) bitte?

    where are you from? — woher kommen Sie?, wo kommen Sie her?

    where should we be if...? — was wäre nur, wenn...?

    2. conj
    wo; (= in the place where) da, wo..., an der Stelle, wo...

    go where you like — geh, wohin du willst, geh hin, wo du willst

    the bag is where you left it — die Tasche ist an der Stelle or da, wo du sie liegen gelassen hast

    that's where I used to live — hier or da habe ich (früher) gewohnt

    we carried on from where we left off — wir haben da weitergemacht, wo wir vorher aufgehört haben

    I've read up to where the king... — ich habe bis dahin or bis an die Stelle gelesen, wo der König...

    we succeeded where we expected to fail — wir hatten da Erfolg, wo wir ihn nicht erwartet hatten

    you can trust him where money is concerned — in Geldsachen können Sie ihm trauen, Sie können ihm trauen, wo es ums Geld geht

    that's where — da

    * * *
    where [weə(r); hwe(ə)r]
    A adv (fragend und relativ)
    1. wo:
    where … from? woher?, von wo?;
    where … (to)? wohin?;
    where shall we be, if …? fig wohin kommen wir oder was wird aus uns, wenn …?
    2. inwiefern, in welcher Hinsicht:
    where does this touch our interests?
    B konj
    1. (der Platz oder die Stelle,) wo:
    I cannot find where the fault is ich kann nicht feststellen, wo der Fehler liegt;
    where it’s (all) at bes US sl
    a) wo sich alles abspielt,
    b) wo was los ist; if you are interested in good food, Paris is where it’s at musst du unbedingt nach Paris fahren
    2. (da,) wo:
    go on reading, where we stopped yesterday
    3. fig (da oder in dem Falle oder in einer Situation,) wo:
    where you should be silent, don’t talk rede nicht, wo du schweigen solltest!
    4. dahin oder irgendwohin, wo;
    wohin:
    he must be sent where he will be taken care of man muss ihn (irgend)wohin schicken, wo man für ihn sorgt;
    go where you please geh, wohin du willst!
    C s meist pl Wo n: → academic.ru/81939/when">when D
    * * *
    1. adverb

    where shall we sit? — wo wollen wir sitzen od. uns hinsetzen?; wohin wollen wir uns setzen?

    where was I? — (fig.) wo war ich stehengeblieben?

    where did Orwell say/write that? — wo od. an welcher Stelle sagt/schreibt Orwell das?

    where is the harm in it/the sense of it? — was macht das schon/welchen od. was für einen Sinn hat das?

    3) (to what place, to which) wohin

    where shall I put it? — wohin soll ich es legen?; wo soll ich es hinlegen?

    where do we go from here? — (fig.) was tun wir jetzt od. als nächstes?

    4) (in what respect) inwiefern

    I don't know where they differ/I've gone wrong — ich weiß nicht, worin sie sich unterscheiden/wo ich den Fehler gemacht habe

    in the box where I keep my tools — in der Kiste, worin od. in der ich mein Werkzeug habe

    where will/would they be if...? — was wird/würde aus ihnen, wenn...?

    2. conjunction
    wo

    where uncertain, leave blank — bei Unsicherheit [bitte] freilassen

    3. pronoun

    near/not far from where it happened — nahe der Stelle/nicht weit von der od. unweit der Stelle, wo es passiert ist

    from where I'm standing — von meinem Standort [aus]

    they continued from where they left off — sie machten da weiter, wo sie aufgehört hatten

    where [...] from? — woher [...]?; von wo [...]?

    where [...] to? — wohin [...]?

    where are you going to? — wohin gehst du?; wo gehst du hin?

    * * *
    adv.
    wo adv.
    wohin adv.

    English-german dictionary > where

  • 11 Guimarães

       This city in Braga district, which is known as the cradle of Portuguese nationality, has origins that precede both the monarchy and the nation. Portugal's first king, Afonso Henriques, was born in Guimarães, and it was here that the first Cortes was held, where it was decided in 1093 to give the government of the county of Portugal to the Burgundian Count Henry, the father of Afonso Henriques, later king of Portugal. In 1853, Guimarães was declared a city by Queen Maria II. Long a symbol of the founding of Portugal, Guimarães's classic granite castle has many historic associations. It was here that the official opening of the 1940 Double Centenary celebrations occurred. With only a small population, Guimarães has a large number of medieval monuments, including churches, palaces, and chapels.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Guimarães

  • 12 Caxton, William

    SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing
    [br]
    b. c.1422 Kent, England
    d. 1491 Westminster, England
    [br]
    English printer who produced the first book to be printed in English.
    [br]
    According to his own account, Caxton was born in Kent and received a schooling before entering the Mercers' Company, one of the most influential of the London guilds and engaged in the wholesale export trade in woollen goods and other wares, principally with the Low Countries. Around 1445, Caxton moved to Bruges, where he engaged in trade with such success that in 1462 he was appointed Governor of the English Nation in Bruges. He was entrusted with diplomatic missions, and his dealings with the court of Burgundy brought him into contact with the Duchess, Margaret of York, sister of the English King Edward IV. Caxton embarked on the production of fine manuscripts, making his own translations from the French for the Duchess and other noble patrons with a taste for this kind of literature. This trend became more marked after 1470–1 when Caxton lost his post in Bruges, probably due to the temporary overthrow of King Edward. Perhaps to satisfy an increasing demand for his texts, Caxton travelled to Cologne in 1471 to learn the art of printing. He set up a printing business in Bruges, in partnership with the copyist and bookseller Colard Mansion. There, late in 1474 or early the following year, Caxton produced the first book to be printed in English, and the first by an English printer, The Recuyell of the Histories of Troy, which he had translated from the French.
    In 1476 Caxton returned to England and set up his printing and publishing business "at the sign of the Red Pale" within the precincts of Westminster Abbey. This was more conveniently placed than the City of London for the likely customers among the court and Members of Parliament for the courtly romances and devotional works he aimed to produce. Other printers followed but survived only a few years, whereas Caxton remained successful for fifteen years and then bequeathed a flourishing concern to his assistant Wynkyn de Worde. During that time, 107 printed works, including seventy-four books, issued from Caxton's press. Of these, some twenty were his own translations. As printer and publisher, he did much to promote English literature, above all by producing the first editions of the literary masterpieces of the Middle Ages, such as the works of Chaucer, Gower and Lydgate and Malory's Morte d'Arthur. Among the various dialects of spoken English in use at the time, Caxton adopted the language of London and the court and so did much to fix a permanent standard for written English.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    W.Blades, 1877, The Biography and Typography of William Caxton, England's First Printer, London; reprinted 1971 (the classic life of Caxton, superseded in detail by modern scholarship but still indispensable).
    G.D.Painter, 1976, William Caxton: A Quincentenary Biography of England's First
    Printer, London: Chatto \& Windus (the most thorough recent biography, describing every known Caxton document and edition, with corrected and new interpretations based on the latest scholarship).
    N.F.Blake, 1969, Caxton and His World, London (a reliable account, set against the background of English late-medieval life).
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Caxton, William

  • 13 day

    day [deɪ]
    jour ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (b) journée ⇒ 1 (a)-(c) époque ⇒ 1 (d)
    1 noun
    ∎ it's a nice or fine day c'est une belle journée, il fait beau aujourd'hui;
    ∎ on a clear day par temps clair;
    ∎ a summer's/winter's day un jour d'été/d'hiver;
    ∎ to have a day out aller passer une journée quelque part;
    ∎ a day at the seaside/the races une journée au bord de la mer/aux courses;
    ∎ we went to the country for the day nous sommes allés passer la journée à la campagne;
    ∎ to have a lazy day passer une journée à paresser;
    ∎ literary when day is done quand le jour s'achève;
    ∎ what day is it (today)? quel jour sommes-nous (aujourd'hui)?;
    ∎ what day is she arriving (on)? quel jour arrive-t-elle?;
    ∎ (on) that day ce jour-là;
    ∎ (on) the day (that or when) she was born le jour où elle est née;
    ∎ on the first/last day of the holidays le premier/dernier jour des vacances;
    ∎ on a day like this/today un jour comme celui-là/aujourd'hui;
    ∎ the day after, (on) the next or following day le lendemain, le jour suivant;
    ∎ the day after the party le lendemain de ou le jour d'après la fête;
    ∎ two days after the party le surlendemain de ou deux jours après la fête;
    ∎ the day after tomorrow après-demain;
    ∎ the day before, (on) the previous day la veille, le jour d'avant;
    ∎ I had first met him two days before je l'avais rencontré l'avant-veille pour la première fois;
    ∎ the day before yesterday avant-hier;
    ∎ four days before/later quatre jours plus tôt/tard;
    ∎ in four days, in four days' time dans quatre jours;
    ∎ it took me four days to do it ça m'a pris quatre jours pour le faire;
    ∎ once/twice a day une fois/deux fois par jour;
    ∎ good day! bonjour!;
    ∎ have a nice day! bonne journée!;
    ∎ the other day l'autre jour;
    ∎ Religion Day of Judgement (jour du) jugement dernier;
    ∎ Religion day of atonement jour m du Grand Pardon;
    ∎ dish of the day plat m du jour;
    ∎ day of reckoning jour de vérité;
    ∎ any day now d'un jour à l'autre;
    ∎ day after day, day in day out jour après jour;
    ∎ for days on end or at a time pendant des jours et des jours;
    ∎ from day to day de jour en jour;
    ∎ to live from day to day vivre au jour le jour;
    ∎ from one day to the next d'un jour à l'autre;
    ∎ from that day on or onwards à partir de ce jour-là;
    ∎ from that day to this depuis ce jour-là;
    ∎ literary from this day forth à partir ou à compter d'aujourd'hui;
    ∎ to the day I die or my dying day jusqu'à mon dernier jour;
    ∎ I'd rather work in Madrid any day (of the week) je préférerais largement ou de loin travailler à Madrid;
    ∎ you've done enough mischief for one day tu as fait assez de bêtises pour une seule journée;
    ∎ humorous another day, another dollar ≃ c'est le train-train quotidien;
    ∎ from day one depuis le premier jour;
    ∎ one day un jour;
    ∎ one of these days un de ces jours;
    ∎ some day un jour;
    ∎ she's seventy if she's a day elle a soixante-dix ans bien sonnés;
    ∎ he doesn't look a day older than 40/you il n'a pas l'air d'avoir plus de 40 ans/d'être plus vieux que toi;
    ∎ he doesn't look a day older than when I last saw him il n'a pas vieilli d'un poil depuis la dernière fois que je l'ai vu;
    ∎ it's been one of those days! tu parles d'une journée!;
    ∎ on this (day) of all days! justement aujourd'hui!;
    ∎ of all (the) days to choose for a conference! quelle idée d'avoir choisi de faire une conférence justement aujourd'hui!;
    ∎ let's make a day of it passons-y la journée;
    ∎ that really made my day! ça m'a fait très plaisir;
    ∎ it's not my (lucky) day ce n'est pas mon jour (de chance);
    ∎ familiar that'll be the day! (it's highly unlikely) il n'y a pas de danger que ça arrive de sitôt!;
    ∎ at the end of the day à la fin de la journée; figurative en fin de compte, au bout du compte;
    ∎ to carry or win the day gagner la journée ou la bataille
    (b) (hours of daylight) jour m, journée f;
    ∎ all day (long) toute la journée;
    ∎ we haven't got all day nous n'avons pas que ça à faire;
    ∎ to travel during the or by day voyager pendant la journée ou de jour;
    ∎ to sleep during the or by day dormir le jour;
    ∎ day and night, night and day jour et nuit, nuit et jour;
    ∎ in the cold light of day the plan seemed unfeasible avec un peu de distance critique, le projet semblait infaisable
    (c) (working hours) journée f;
    ∎ paid by the day payé à la journée;
    ∎ to work a seven-hour day travailler sept heures par jour, faire des journées de sept heures;
    ∎ how was your day?, what kind of day have you had? comment s'est passée ta journée?;
    ∎ did you have a good day? tu as passé une bonne journée?;
    ∎ it's been a hard/long day la journée a été dure/longue;
    ∎ day off jour m de congé;
    ∎ day of rest jour m de repos;
    ∎ let's call it a day (stop work) arrêtons-nous pour aujourd'hui; (end relationship) finissons-en;
    ∎ it's all in a day's work! ça fait partie du travail!
    (d) (often pl) (lifetime, era) époque f;
    ∎ in Caesar's day du temps de César;
    ∎ in the days of King Arthur, in King Arthur's day du temps du Roi Arthur;
    ∎ in days to come à l'avenir;
    ∎ in days gone by par le passé;
    ∎ in those days à l'époque;
    ∎ what are you up to these days? qu'est-ce que tu fais de beau ces temps-ci?;
    ∎ honestly, teenagers these days! vraiment, les adolescents d'aujourd'hui!;
    ∎ literary or humorous in days of old or yore il y a fort longtemps;
    ∎ in the good old days dans le temps;
    ∎ in my/our day de mon/notre temps;
    ∎ in this day and age de nos jours, aujourd'hui;
    ∎ he was well-known in his day il était connu de son temps ou à son époque;
    ∎ in his working/married days du temps où il travaillait/était marié;
    ∎ in his younger days dans son jeune temps, dans sa jeunesse;
    ∎ the happiest/worst days of my life les plus beaux/les pires jours de ma vie;
    ∎ during the early days of the strike/my childhood au tout début de la grève/de mon enfance;
    ∎ he ended his days in poverty il a fini ses jours dans la misère;
    ∎ her day will come son heure viendra;
    ∎ to have had its day (theory, fashion etc) être démodé; (car, TV) avoir fait son temps;
    ∎ he's had his day il a eu son heure;
    ∎ he's/this chair has seen better days il/cette chaise a connu des jours meilleurs;
    ∎ those were the days c'était le bon temps
    (e) (battle, game)
    ∎ to win or to carry the day l'emporter;
    ∎ to lose the day perdre la partie
    ∎ to work days travailler de jour
    dans huit jours aujourd'hui
    jour pour jour;
    ∎ it's a year ago to the day il y a un an jour pour jour ou aujourd'hui
    à ce jour, aujourd'hui encore
    ►► day bed lit m de repos;
    American day camp centre m aéré;
    day care (for elderly, disabled) service m d'accueil de jour; (for children) service m de garderie;
    ∎ the children go to day care les enfants vont à la garderie;
    day centre = centre d'animation et d'aide sociale;
    day cream crème f de jour;
    day job travail m principal;
    ∎ familiar humorous don't give up the day job (to aspiring artist etc) je ne crois pas que tu es prêt pour une carrière professionnelle;
    day labourer journalier(ère) m,f;
    day nurse infirmier(ère) m,f qui est de service de jour;
    day nursery garderie f;
    Stock Exchange day order ordre m valable pour la journée;
    day pass (for skiing) forfait m journalier;
    School day pupil (élève mf) externe mf;
    British Industry day release formation f continue en alternance;
    ∎ to be on day release être en formation continue en alternance;
    Railways day return aller-retour m valable pour la journée;
    day room salle f commune;
    day school externat m;
    day shift (period worked) service m de jour; (workers) équipe f de jour;
    ∎ to work the day shift travailler de jour, être (dans l'équipe) de jour;
    ∎ when do you go on day shift? quand est-ce que tu prends le service de jour?;
    Stock Exchange day trade opération f de journée;
    Stock Exchange day trader spéculateur(trice) m,f à la journée;
    day trip excursion f;
    day tripper excursionniste mf;
    day work travail m de jour
    ✾ Book ✾ Film 'The Day of the Jackal' Forsyth, Zimmermann 'Le Chacal'

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > day

  • 14 then

    ðen
    1. adverb
    1) (at that time in the past or future: I was at school then; If you're coming next week, I'll see you then.) entonces, en ese/aquel momento
    2) (used with prepositions to mean that time in the past or future: John should be here by then; I'll need you before then; I have been ill since then; Until then; Goodbye till then!) entonces, ese/aquel momento
    3) (after that: I had a drink, (and) then I went home.) entonces; después
    4) (in that case: He might not give us the money and then what would we do?) entonces
    5) (often used especially at the end of sentences in which an explanation, opinion etc is asked for, or which show surprise etc: What do you think of that, then?) entonces
    6) (also; in addition: I have two brothers, and then I have a cousin in America.) además

    2. conjunction
    (in that case; as a result: If you're tired, then you must rest.) entonces, en ese caso

    3. adjective
    (at that time (in the past): the then Prime Minister.) entonces
    then adv
    1. entonces / en aquella época
    I was born in 1920, life was harder then yo nací en 1920, entonces la vida era más dura
    2. entonces / luego / después
    3. pues / entonces
    if you don't like it, then don't eat it si no te gusta, pues no te lo comas
    tr[ðen]
    1 (at that time) entonces
    2 (next) luego, después, entonces
    3 (besides) además
    4 (so, therefore) entonces, así que; (in that case) entonces, pues
    ■ you've come back then? ¿así que has vuelto?
    ■ if you don't want to go, then don't si no quieres ir, pues no vayas
    1 (de) entonces
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    but then pero claro
    by then para entonces
    from then on a partir de entonces, desde entonces
    now and then de vez en cuando
    now then pues bien, ahora bien
    since then desde entonces
    then again también
    there and then en el acto, en el mismo momento
    until then / till then hasta entonces
    then ['ðɛn] adv
    1) : entonces, en ese tiempo
    I was sixteen then: tenía entonces dieciséis años
    since then: desde entonces
    2) next: después, luego
    we'll go to Toronto, then to Winnipeg: iremos a Toronto, y luego a Winnipeg
    3) besides: además, aparte
    then there's the tax: y aparte está el impuesto
    4) : entonces, en ese caso
    if you like music, then you should attend: si te gusta la música, entonces deberías asistir
    then adj
    : entonces
    the then governor of Georgia: el entonces gobernador de Georgia
    adj.
    • de entonces adj.
    adv.
    • allí adv.
    • después adv.
    • entonces adv.
    • luego adv.
    • pues adv.
    conj.
    • conque conj.
    • luego conj.
    • por tanto conj.
    • pues conj.

    I ðen
    1)
    a) ( at that time) entonces

    it was then that I remembered — fue entonces or en ese momento cuando or (AmL tb) que me acordé

    b) ( in those days) en aquel entonces, en aquella época, a la sazón (liter)
    2) (after prep)

    from then on(ward) — a partir de ese momento, desde entonces

    (up) until o till then, up to then — hasta entonces

    3)
    a) (next, afterward) después, luego
    b) ( in those circumstances) entonces

    you might lose your job: what would you do then? — podrías perder el trabajo ¿y entonces qué harías?

    what then? — ¿entonces qué?

    c) (besides, in addition) además
    4)
    b) ( in that case) entonces

    you try doing it, then! — inténtalo tú, entonces!

    5)

    II
    adjective (before n) entonces
    [ðen]
    1. ADV
    1) (=at that time) entonces; (=on that occasion) en aquel momento, en aquella ocasión; (=at that period in time) en aquel entonces, en aquella época, a la sazón frm

    it was then that... — fue entonces cuando...

    then he used to go out, but now he never does — entonces or en aquella época salía, pero ahora no sale nunca

    • before then, she couldn't remember anything that had happened before then — no podía recordar nada de lo que había ocurrido hasta entonces or hasta ese momento

    • by then — para entonces

    • even then, they existed even then, in 1953 — existían incluso entonces, en 1953

    even then it didn't work — aún así, no funcionaba

    • from then on — desde aquel momento, desde entonces, a partir de entonces

    • just then, just then he came in — entró justo entonces

    • (every) now and then — de vez en cuando

    • since then — desde entonces

    • he wanted it done then and there — quería que lo hicieran en el acto or en ese mismo momento

    • until then — hasta entonces

    2) (=afterwards, next) después, luego

    then we went to Jaca — después or luego fuimos a Jaca

    what happened then? — ¿qué pasó después or luego?

    I chop the onions and then what? — pico las cebollas, ¿y luego qué?

    now 1., 6)
    3) (=in that case) entonces

    what do you want me to do then? — ¿entonces, qué quieres que haga?

    "but I don't want a new one" - "what do you want then?" — -pero yo no quiero uno nuevo -¿pues, qué es lo que quieres entonces?

    then you don't want it? — ¿así que no lo quieres?

    can't you hear me then? — ¿es que no me oyes?, ¿pues or entonces no me oyes?

    "it doesn't work" - "well then, we'll buy another one" — -no funciona -bueno, pues entonces compraremos otro

    4) (=furthermore) además

    it would be awkward at work, and then there's the family — en el trabajo habría problemas, y además tengo que pensar en la familia

    this, then, was the situation at the beginning of his reign — esta era, pues, or esta era, por (lo) tanto, la situación al principio de su reinado

    6) (=having said that)

    • and or but then again — por otra parte

    • I like it, but then I'm biased — a mí sí me gusta, pero yo no soy objetivo

    but then, you never can tell — pero vamos, nunca se sabe

    2.
    ADJ entonces, de entonces

    the then Labour government — el gobierno laborista de entonces, el entonces gobierno, que era laborista

    THEN
    Time
    ► When then means "at that time", translate using entonces:
    It was then that she heard Gwen cry out Fue entonces cuando oyó gritar a Gwen
    I hadn't heard about it till then Hasta entonces no había oído hablar de ello ► Alternatively, use expressions like en aquella época t o refer to a particular period or en ese momento to refer to a particular moment:
    ... my sister, who was then about 17...... mi hermana, que en aquella época tenía unos 17 años... or que tenía entonces unos 17 años... ► When then is used in the sense of "next", translate using luego or después:
    At first he refused but then he changed his mind Primero se negó, pero luego or después cambió de opinión
    He went to Julián's house and then to the chemist's Fue a casa de Julián y luego or después a la farmacia
    Reason
    ► When then means "so" or "in that case", translate using entonces (placed at the beginning of the sentence):
    "I have a headache" - "So you won't be coming to the theatre, then?" "Me duele la cabeza" - "¿Entonces no vienes al teatro?"
    Then you'll already know about the bomb Entonces ya sabrás lo de la bomba ► Alternatively, use pues entonces:
    Then you'll already know about the bomb Pues entonces ya sabrás lo de la bomba ► In more formal and written language, use por ( lo) tanto or alternatively, pues, particularly when you are introducing a summary or a conclusion. These often appear between commas:
    Their decision, then, was based on a detailed analysis of the situation Su decisión, pues, or Su decisión, por (lo) tanto, estaba basada en un análisis detallado de la situación For further uses and examples, see main entry
    * * *

    I [ðen]
    1)
    a) ( at that time) entonces

    it was then that I remembered — fue entonces or en ese momento cuando or (AmL tb) que me acordé

    b) ( in those days) en aquel entonces, en aquella época, a la sazón (liter)
    2) (after prep)

    from then on(ward) — a partir de ese momento, desde entonces

    (up) until o till then, up to then — hasta entonces

    3)
    a) (next, afterward) después, luego
    b) ( in those circumstances) entonces

    you might lose your job: what would you do then? — podrías perder el trabajo ¿y entonces qué harías?

    what then? — ¿entonces qué?

    c) (besides, in addition) además
    4)
    b) ( in that case) entonces

    you try doing it, then! — inténtalo tú, entonces!

    5)

    II
    adjective (before n) entonces

    English-spanish dictionary > then

  • 15 late

    1. adjective
    1) spät; (after proper time) verspätet

    be late for the train — den Zug verpassen

    the train is [ten minutes] late — der Zug hat [zehn Minuten] Verspätung

    spring is late this year — dieses Jahr haben wir einen späten Frühling

    late riser — Spätaufsteher, der/-aufsteherin, die

    late shift — Spätschicht, die

    it is late — es ist [schon] spät

    have a late dinner — [erst] spät zu Abend essen

    late summer — Spätsommer, der

    2) (deceased) verstorben
    3) (former) ehemalig; vormalig
    4) (recent) letzt...

    in late times — in letzter Zeit. See also academic.ru/88633/later">later; latest

    2. adverb
    1) (after proper time) verspätet

    [too] late — zu spät

    they got home very late — sie kamen [erst] sehr spät nach Hause

    2) (far on in time) spät

    late last century — [gegen] Ende des letzten Jahrhunderts

    late in life — erst im fortgeschrittenen Alter

    3) (at or till a late hour) spät

    be up/sit up late — bis spät in die Nacht od. lange aufbleiben

    work late at the office — [abends] lange im Büro arbeiten

    late of... — ehemals wohnhaft in...; ehemaliger Mitarbeiter [einer Firma]

    [a bit] late in the day — (fig. coll.) reichlich spät

    3. noun
    * * *
    [leit] 1. adjective
    1) (coming etc after the expected or usual time: The train is late tonight; I try to be punctual but I am always late.) spät
    2) (far on in the day or night: late in the day; late at night; It was very late when I got to bed.) spät
    3) (dead, especially recently: the late king.) früher
    4) (recently, but no longer, holding an office or position: Mr Allan, the late chairman, made a speech.) ehemalig
    2. adverb
    1) (after the expected or usual time: He arrived late for his interview.) zu spät
    2) (far on in the day or night: They always go to bed late.) spät
    •
    - lateness
    - lately
    - later on
    - of late
    * * *
    [leɪt]
    I. adj
    <-r, -st>
    1. (behind time) verspätet attr
    ▪ to be \late bus, flight, train Verspätung haben; person zu spät kommen, sich akk verspäten
    my bus was 20 minutes \late mein Bus hatte 20 Minuten Verspätung
    sorry I'm \late tut mir leid, dass ich zu spät komme [o dass ich mich verspätet habe]
    we apologize for the \late arrival of the bus die verspätete Ankunft des Busses bitten wir zu entschuldigen
    interests will be charged for \late payment bei verspäteter Zahlung werden Zinsen fällig
    ▪ to be \late for sth zu spät zu etw dat kommen
    hurry up or you'll be \late for the bus beeil dich, sonst verpasst du noch den Bus
    to be \late for work zu spät zur Arbeit kommen
    2. (in the day) spät
    let's go home, it's getting \late lass uns nach Hause gehen, es ist schon spät
    I didn't know it was that \late! ich hatte keine Ahnung, dass es schon so spät ist!
    what are you doing up at this \late hour? warum bist du denn noch um diese Uhrzeit [o noch zu so später Stunde] auf?
    what is the \latest time I can have an appointment? wann wäre der späteste Termin?
    I've had too many \late nights last month ich bin letzten Monat zu oft zu spät ins Bett gekommen
    is it too \late to phone Jean? kann man Jean um diese Uhrzeit noch anrufen?
    I'm sorry the call is so \late tut mir leid, dass ich so spät [noch] anrufe
    \late last night she phoned me sie rief mich gestern Abend ganz spät noch an
    this part of town gets quite dangerous \later at night zu später Stunde wird es in diesem Stadtteil ziemlich gefährlich
    a \late breakfast/lunch ein spätes Frühstück/Mittagessen
    \late news Spätnachrichten pl
    here is a \late news flash jetzt noch ein paar Spätnachrichten
    to keep \late hours shops lange [o spät] geöffnet haben
    \late opening hours lange Öffnungszeiten
    \late shift Spätschicht f
    \late train Spätzug m
    3. attr (towards the end) spät
    she made some \late changes to the team sie hat die Teamzusammenstellung noch kurzfristig geändert
    they won the game with a \late goal sie gewannen mit einem Tor kurz vor Spielende
    in \later life she started painting in späteren Jahren hat sie angefangen zu malen
    \late tomorrow afternoon/evening/morning morgen am späten Nachmittag/Abend/Vormittag
    in the \late afternoon/evening spät am Nachmittag/Abend, spätnachmittags/spätabends
    in the \late morning am späten Vormittag
    the \late nineteenth century das ausgehende [o späte] 19. Jahrhundert
    \late October Ende Oktober
    the \late 70s die späten Siebzigerjahre
    \late strawberries Späterdbeeren pl
    \late summer/autumn [or AM also fall] der Spätsommer/-herbst
    to be in one's \late thirties/twenties Ende dreißig/zwanzig sein
    4. attr ARTS, MUS spät
    I prefer her earlier paintings to her \later work mir gefallen ihre frühen Gemälde besser als ihr Spätwerk
    \late Gothic style späte Gotik
    a \late work by Brahms ein spätes Stück von Brahms
    5. attr (former) früher, ehemalig
    a \late collegue of mine ein früherer [o ehemaliger] Kollege von mir
    6. attr (deceased) verstorben
    the \late Albert Einstein Albert Einstein
    her \late husband ihr verstorbener Mann
    7. attr (recent) jüngste(r, s); (last) letzte(r, s)
    some \late news has just come in that... soeben ist die Meldung hereingekommen, dass...
    II. adv
    <-r, -s>
    the train arrived \late der Zug hatte Verspätung
    sorry, I'm running a bit \late today tut mir leid, ich bin heute etwas spät dran
    she married \late sie hat spät geheiratet
    on Sundays I get up \late Sonntags stehe ich später auf
    can I stay up \late tonight? darf ich heute länger aufbleiben?
    to work \late länger arbeiten
    Ann has to work \late today Ann muss heute Überstunden machen
    [too] \late zu spät
    he arrived \late er traf zu spät ein
    the letter arrived two days \late der Brief ist zwei Tage zu spät angekommen
    he realized the truth too \late er hat die Wahrheit zu spät erkannt
    2. (at an advanced time) zu fortgeschrittener [o vorgerückter] Stunde
    there's a good film on \late heute kommt spätabends [o spät am Abend] ein guter Film
    \late that evening, there was knock at the door am späten Abend [o spätabends] klopfte es an der Tür
    we talked \late into the night wir haben bis spät in die Nacht geredet
    it happened \late last century, in 1998 to be exact es ist kurz vor der Jahrtausendwende passiert, um genau zu sein im Jahr 1998
    \late in the afternoon/at night am späten Nachmittag/Abend, spätnachmittags/spätabends
    \late in the evening/night spät am Abend/in der Nacht
    \late in the day spät [am Tag], gegen Ende des Tages; ( fig: late) spät; ( fig: at the very last moment) im [aller]letzten Augenblick
    it's rather \late in the day to do sth ( fig) es ist schon beinahe zu spät um etw zu tun
    too \late in the day ( also fig) zu spät
    \late in the game gegen Ende des Spiels; ( fig)
    it's too \late in the game to do sth es ist zu spät um etw zu tun
    \late in life in fortgeschrittenem Alter, spät [im Leben]
    he got his driver's licence \late in life er machte erst sehr spät den Führerschein
    \late in March/this month/this year gegen Ende März/des Monats/des Jahres
    to get up \late spät aufstehen
    to stay up \late lange aufbleiben
    as \late as noch
    they were using horses on this farm [until] as \late as the 1980s auf dieser Farm arbeiteten sie noch bis in die Achtzigerjahre mit Pferden
    of \late in letzter Zeit
    4. ( form: formerly)
    ▪ \late of bis vor Kurzem
    Dr. Averly, \late of Newcastle General Hospital,... Herr Dr. Averly, bis vor Kurzem noch am Allgemeinen Krankenhaus von Newcastle [tätig],...
    * * *
    [leɪt]
    1. adj (+er)

    to be late (for sth) — (zu etw) zu spät kommen

    the train/bus is (five minutes) late — der Zug/Bus hat (fünf Minuten) Verspätung

    dinner will be late tonight — wir essen heute Abend später; (in hotels) es wird heute Abend später serviert

    he is late with his rent — er hat seine Miete noch nicht bezahlt

    my period is late, I am late — meine Periode ist noch nicht da

    that made me late for work —

    I don't want to make you late for work — ich möchte nicht, dass du zu spät zur Arbeit kommst

    due to the late arrival of... — wegen der verspäteten Ankunft... (+gen)

    it's too late in the day (for you) to do that —

    it's not too late to change your mind — es ist noch nicht zu spät, um es sich anders zu überlegen

    2)
    3) hour spät; opening hours lang

    late train/bus — Spätzug/-bus m

    at this late hour — zu so später Stunde, so spät

    they work late hours —

    the night was cold and the hour late — die Nacht war kalt und es war sehr spät

    late potato/summer/edition/programme — Spätkartoffel f/-sommer m/-ausgabe f/-programm nt

    "late opening until 7pm on Fridays" — "freitags verlängerte Öffnungszeiten bis 19 Uhr"

    late entrants to the examination will be charged £10 extra — für Nachmeldungen zur Prüfung wird eine Gebühr von £ 10 erhoben

    a man in his late eighties — ein Mann hoch in den Achtzigern, ein Endachtziger

    a late 18th-century building — ein Gebäude aus dem späten 18. Jahrhundert

    4) (= deceased) verstorben

    the late John F. Kennedy — John F. Kennedy

    5)

    (= former) the late Prime Minister — der frühere or vorige Premierminister

    6) (= recent) jüngst
    7)

    late of No 13 White St — ehemals White St Nr. 13

    2. adv
    spät

    I'll be home late today — ich komme heute spät nach Hause, es wird heute spät

    the train arrived/was running eight minutes late — der Zug hatte acht Minuten Verspätung

    late last century/in the year — (gegen) Ende des letzten Jahrhunderts/Jahres

    they scored late in the second half —

    we decided rather late in the day to come too — wir haben uns ziemlich spät entschlossen, auch zu kommen

    he left it very late in the day (to decide) — er hat (mit seiner Entscheidung) bis zum letzten Augenblick gewartet

    * * *
    late [leıt]
    A adj (adv → lately)
    1. spät:
    at a late hour spät (a. fig), zu später Stunde;
    keep late hours spät aufstehen und spät zu Bett gehen;
    late fruits pl Spätobst n;
    late riser Spätaufsteher(in), Langschläfer(in);
    late shift WIRTSCH Spätschicht f, -dienst m;
    be on late shift Spätschicht oder -dienst haben;
    it’s getting late es ist schon spät;
    I had a late night ich bin erst spät ins Bett gekommen; → developer 3
    2. vorgerückt, spät…, Spät…:
    late summer Spätsommer m;
    Late Latin Spätlatein n;
    the late 18th century das späte 18. Jh.;
    late work Spätwerk n (eines Künstlers);
    she is (a woman) in her late sixties sie ist hoch in den Sechzigern, sie ist eine Endsechzigerin
    3. verspätet, zu spät:
    a) zu spät kommen, sich verspäten, spät dran sein,
    b) Verspätung haben (Zug etc),
    c) im Rückstand sein;
    be late for dinner zu spät zum Essen kommen;
    be 10 minutes late 10 Minuten zu spät kommen;
    you’ll be late for your own funeral umg hum du kommst noch zu deinem eigenen Begräbnis zu spät;
    it is too late es ist zu spät
    4. letzt(er, e, es), jüngst(er, e, es), neu:
    the late war der letzte Krieg;
    the latest fashion die neueste Mode;
    the latest news die neuesten Nachrichten;
    his latest work sein jüngstes Werk;
    of late years in den letzten Jahren; → thing2 3
    5. a) letzt(er, e, es), früher(er, e, es), ehemalig, vormalig:
    our late enemy unser ehemaliger Feind;
    the late government die letzte Regierung;
    my late residence meine frühere Wohnung;
    late of Oxford früher in Oxford (wohnhaft)
    b) verstorben:
    the late lamented der oder die jüngst Entschlafene oder Verstorbene
    B adv
    1. spät:
    as late as last year erst oder noch letztes Jahr;
    better late than never lieber spät als gar nicht;
    see you later auf bald!, bis später!;
    later on später;
    keep ( oder sit, stay) up late lang oder bis spät in die Nacht aufbleiben;
    late last month Ende letzten Monats;
    late in the day umg reichlich spät, ein bisschen spät;
    come latest als Letzter oder zuletzt kommen; → afternoon A, night Bes Redew, sleep A 1
    2. zu spät:
    the train came late der Zug hatte Verspätung
    * * *
    1. adjective
    1) spät; (after proper time) verspätet

    the train is [ten minutes] late — der Zug hat [zehn Minuten] Verspätung

    late riser — Spätaufsteher, der/-aufsteherin, die

    late shift — Spätschicht, die

    it is late — es ist [schon] spät

    have a late dinner — [erst] spät zu Abend essen

    late summer — Spätsommer, der

    2) (deceased) verstorben
    3) (former) ehemalig; vormalig
    4) (recent) letzt...

    in late times — in letzter Zeit. See also later; latest

    2. adverb
    1) (after proper time) verspätet

    [too] late — zu spät

    they got home very late — sie kamen [erst] sehr spät nach Hause

    late last century — [gegen] Ende des letzten Jahrhunderts

    be up/sit up late — bis spät in die Nacht od. lange aufbleiben

    work late at the office — [abends] lange im Büro arbeiten

    late of... — ehemals wohnhaft in...; ehemaliger Mitarbeiter [einer Firma]

    [a bit] late in the day — (fig. coll.) reichlich spät

    3. noun

    English-german dictionary > late

  • 16 Deane, Sir Anthony

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 1638 Harwich (?), England
    d. 1721 England
    [br]
    English master shipwright, one of the most influential of seventeenth-century England.
    [br]
    It is believed that Deane was born in Harwich, the son of a master mariner. When 22 years of age, having been trained by Christopher Pett, he was appointed Assistant Master Shipwright at Woolwich Naval Dockyard, indicating an ability as a shipbuilder and also that he had influence behind him. Despite abruptness and a tendency to annoy his seniors, he was acknowledged by no less a man than Pepys (1633–1703) for his skill as a ship designer and -builder, and he was one of the few who could accurately estimate displacements and drafts of ships under construction. While only 26 years old, he was promoted to Master Shipwright of the Naval Base at Harwich and commenced a notable career. When the yard was closed four years later (on the cessation of the threat from the Dutch), Deane was transferred to the key position of Master Shipwright at Portsmouth and given the opportunity to construct large men-of-war. In 1671 he built his first three-decker and was experimenting with underwater hull sheathing and other matters. In 1672 he became a member of the Navy Board, and from then on promotion was spectacular, with almost full responsibility given him for decisions on ship procurement for the Navy. Owing to political changes he was out of office for some years and endured a short period in prison, but on his release he continued to work as a private shipbuilder. He returned to the King's service for a few years before the "Glorious Revolution" of 1688; thereafter little is known of his life, beyond that he died in 1721.
    Deane's monument to posterity is his Doctrine of Naval Architecture, published in 1670. It is one of the few books on ship design of the period and gives a clear insight into the rather pedantic procedures used in those less than scientific times. Deane became Mayor of Harwich and subsequently Member of Parliament. It is believed that he was Peter the Great's tutor on shipbuilding during his visit to the Thames in 1698.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1673.
    Bibliography
    1670, Doctrine of Naval Architecture; repub. 1981, with additional commentaries by Brian Lavery, as Deane's Doctrine of Naval Architecture 1670, London: Conway Maritime.
    Further Reading
    Westcott Abell, 1948, The Shipwright's Trade, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    FMW

    Biographical history of technology > Deane, Sir Anthony

  • 17 Le Roy, Pierre

    SUBJECT AREA: Horology
    [br]
    b. 24 November 1717 Paris, France
    d. 25 August 1785 Viry-sur-Orge, France
    [br]
    French horologist who invented the detached détente escapement and the compensation balance.
    [br]
    Le Roy was born into a distinguished horological family: his father, Julien, was Clockmaker to the King. Pierre became Master in 1737 and continued to work with his father, taking over the business when his father died in 1759. However, he seems to have left the commercial side of the business to others so that he could concentrate on developing the marine chronometer. Unlike John Harrison, he believed that the solution lay in detaching the escapement from the balance, and in 1748 he submitted a proposal for the first detached escapement to the Académie des Sciences in Paris. He also differed from Harrison in his method of temperature compensation, which acted directly on the balance by altering its radius of gyration. This was achieved either by mounting thermometers on the balance or by using bimetallic strips which effectively reduced the diameter of the balance as the temperature rose (with refinements, this later became the standard method of temperature compensation in watches and chronometers). Le Roy had already discovered that for every spiral balance spring there was a particular length at which it would be isochronous, and this method of temperature compensation did not destroy that isochronism by altering the length, as other methods did. These innovations were incorporated in a chronometer with an improved detached escapement which he presented to Louis XV in 1766 and described in a memoir to the Académie des Sciences. This instrument contained the three essential elements of all subsequent chronometers: an isochronous balance spring, a detached escapement and a balance with temperature compensation. Its performance was similar to that of Harrison's fourth timepiece, and Le Roy was awarded prizes by the Académie des Sciences for the chronometer and for his memoir. However, his work was never fully appreciated in France, where he was over-shadowed by his rival Ferdinand Berthoud. When Berthoud was awarded the coveted title of Horloger de la Marine, Le Roy became disillusioned and shortly afterwards gave up chronometry and retired to the country.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Horloger du Roi 1760.
    Bibliography
    1748, "Echappement à détente", Histoire et mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences.
    Further Reading
    R.T.Gould, 1923, The Marine Chronometer: Its History and Development, London; reprinted 1960, Holland Press (still the standard work on the subject).
    DV

    Biographical history of technology > Le Roy, Pierre

  • 18 Henry of Aviz, Prince

    (1394-1460)
       Known to the Portuguese as "O Infante Dom Henrique," as an heir to his father's throne, Prince Henry the Navigator was born in Oporto. His Father was King João I (r. 1357-1433) and his mother was Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt. As a young prince, Henry won his knighthood as a member of the Portuguese expedition that captured the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415, the beginning of Portugal's overseas expansion and the onset of the European age of exploration and discovery.
       The life and work of Prince Henry are steeped in centuries of myth and legend. Reliable historical research suggests that the prince played a key role in the early phases of the Portuguese discoveries due to his patronage of expeditions, sailors, and navigators and his use of the important funds of the knightly Order of Christ, of which he was in control. Prince Henry, nevertheless, was not solely responsible for more than one-third of the exploration ventures during his time, possessed strongly medieval ways, did not create the so-called "School of Sagres" for navigators, and certainly was ignorant of much Renaissance science. Although he did participate nobly in the Ceuta adventure, as far as the voyages down the coast of Africa and into the Atlantic until his death in 1460 are concerned, Prince Henry was an armchair navigator who did not visit Africa beyond Morocco.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Henry of Aviz, Prince

  • 19 Clymer, George E.

    SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing
    [br]
    b. 1754 Bucks County, Pennsylvania, USA
    d. 27 August 1834 London, England
    [br]
    American inventor of the Columbian printing press.
    [br]
    Clymer was born on his father's farm, of a family that emigrated from Switzerland in the early eighteenth century. He attended local schools, helping out on the farm in his spare time, and he showed a particular talent for maintaining farm machinery. At the age of 16 he learned the trade of carpenter and joiner, which he followed in the same district for over twenty-five years. During that time, he showed his talent for mechanical invention in many ways, including the invention of a plough specially adapted to the local soils. Around 1800, he moved to Philadelphia, where his interest was aroused by the erection of the first bridge over the Schuylkill River. He devised a pump to remove water from the cofferdams at a rate of 500 gallons per day, superior to any other pumps then in use. He obtained a US patent for this in 1801, and a British one soon after.
    Clymer then turned his attention to the improvement of the printing press. For three and a half centuries after its invention, the old wooden-framed press had remained virtually unchanged except in detail. The first real change came in 1800 with the introduction of the iron press by Earl Stanhope. Modified versions were developed by other inventors, notably George Clymer, who after more than ten years' effort achieved his Columbian press. With its new system of levers, it enabled perfect impressions to be obtained with far less effort by the pressman. The Columbian was also notable for its distinctive cast-iron ornamentation, including a Hermes on each pillar and alligators and other reptiles on the levers. Most spectacular, it was surmounted by an American spread eagle, usually covered in gilt, which also served as a counterweight to raise the platen. The earliest known Columbian, surviving only in an illustration, bears the inscription Columbian Press/No.25/invented by George Clymer/Anno Domini 1813/Made in Philadelphia 1816. Few American printers could afford the US$400 selling price, so in 1817 Clymer went to England, where it was taken up enthusiastically. He obtained a British patent for it the same year, and by the following March it was being manufactured by the engineering firm R.W.Cope, although Clymer was probably making it on his own account soon afterwards. The Columbian was widely used for many years and continued to be made even into the twentieth century. The King of the Netherlands awarded Clymer a gold medal for his invention and the Tsar of Russia gave him a present for installing the press in Russia. Doubtless for business reasons, Clymer spent most of his remaining years in England and Europe.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    J.Moran, 1973, Printing Presses, London: Faber \& Faber.
    —1969, contributed a thorough survey of the press in J. Printing Hist. Soc., no. 3.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Clymer, George E.

  • 20 Isabel, Santa

    (Saint Elizabeth of Portugal)
    (1269-1336)
       Known to the Portuguese as "Holy Queen" Isabel, she was born in Spain, the daughter of Pedro III of Aragon. At the tender age of 12, she was married to Portugal's King Dinis, who was a better monarch than he was a husband. Isabel became widely known and famous for her peacemaking among her warring family and between Portugal and Castile, her piety and devotion, and her good works in supporting and building convents, chapels, hospitals, refuges for the homeless and wayward, orphanages, and shelters for abused women. Widowed in 1325, she moved near the Santa Clara Convent in Coimbra and continued her pious deeds. She died on 4 July 1336, the day now celebrated as her feast day, and was buried in Coimbra. She was beatified in 1516, and canonized in 1625 by Pope Urban VIII.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Isabel, Santa

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